/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Name:        unicode.h
// Purpose:     topic overview
// Author:      wxWidgets team
// Licence:     wxWindows licence
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/**

@page overview_unicode Unicode Support in wxWidgets

@tableofcontents

This section describes how does wxWidgets support Unicode and how can it affect
your programs.

Notice that Unicode support has changed radically in wxWidgets 3.0 and a lot of
existing material pertaining to the previous versions of the library is not
correct any more. Please see @ref overview_changes_unicode for the details of
these changes.

You can skip the first two sections if you're already familiar with Unicode and
wish to jump directly in the details of its support in the library.



@section overview_unicode_what What is Unicode?

Unicode is a standard for character encoding which addresses the shortcomings
of the previous standards (e.g. the ASCII standard), by using 8, 16 or 32 bits
for encoding each character.
This allows enough code points (see below for the definition) sufficient to
encode all of the world languages at once.
More details about Unicode may be found at http://www.unicode.org/.

From a practical point of view, using Unicode is almost a requirement when
writing applications for international audience. Moreover, any application
reading files which it didn't produce or receiving data from the network from
other services should be ready to deal with Unicode.


@section overview_unicode_encodings Unicode Representations and Terminology

When working with Unicode, it's important to define the meaning of some terms.

A <b><em>glyph</em></b> is a particular image (usually part of a font) that
represents a character or part of a character.
Any character may have one or more glyph associated; e.g. some of the possible
glyphs for the capital letter 'A' are:

@image html overview_unicode_glyphs.png

Unicode assigns each character of almost any existing alphabet/script a number,
which is called <b><em>code point</em></b>; it's typically indicated in documentation
manuals and in the Unicode website as @c U+xxxx where @c xxxx is an hexadecimal number.

Note that typically one character is assigned exactly one code point, but there
are exceptions; the so-called <em>precomposed characters</em>
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precomposed_character) or the <em>ligatures</em>.
In these cases a single "character" may be mapped to more than one code point or
vice versa more than one character may be mapped to a single code point.

The Unicode standard divides the space of all possible code points in <b><em>planes</em></b>;
a plane is a range of 65,536 (1000016) contiguous Unicode code points.
Planes are numbered from 0 to 16, where the first one is the @e BMP, or Basic
Multilingual Plane.
The BMP contains characters for all modern languages, and a large number of
special characters. The other planes in fact contain mainly historic scripts,
special-purpose characters or are unused.

Code points are represented in computer memory as a sequence of one or more
<b><em>code units</em></b>, where a code unit is a unit of memory: 8, 16, or 32 bits.
More precisely, a code unit is the minimal bit combination that can represent a
unit of encoded text for processing or interchange.

The <b><em>UTF</em></b> or Unicode Transformation Formats are algorithms mapping the Unicode
code points to code unit sequences. The simplest of them is <b>UTF-32</b> where
each code unit is composed by 32 bits (4 bytes) and each code point is always
represented by a single code unit (fixed length encoding).
(Note that even UTF-32 is still not completely trivial as the mapping is different
for little and big-endian architectures). UTF-32 is commonly used under Unix systems for
internal representation of Unicode strings.

Another very widespread standard is <b>UTF-16</b> which is used by Microsoft Windows:
it encodes the first (approximately) 64 thousands of Unicode code points
(the BMP plane) using 16-bit code units (2 bytes) and uses a pair of 16-bit code
units to encode the characters beyond this. These pairs are called @e surrogate.
Thus UTF16 uses a variable number of code units to encode each code point.

Finally, the most widespread encoding used for the external Unicode storage
(e.g. files and network protocols) is <b>UTF-8</b> which is byte-oriented and so
avoids the endianness ambiguities of UTF-16 and UTF-32.
UTF-8 uses code units of 8 bits (1 byte); code points beyond the usual english
alphabet are represented using a variable number of bytes, which makes it less
efficient than UTF-32 for internal representation.

As visual aid to understand the differences between the various concepts described
so far, look at the different UTF representations of the same code point:

@image html overview_unicode_codes.png

In this particular case UTF8 requires more space than UTF16 (3 bytes instead of 2).

Note that from the C/C++ programmer perspective the situation is further complicated
by the fact that the standard type @c wchar_t which is usually used to represent the
Unicode ("wide") strings in C/C++ doesn't have the same size on all platforms.
It is 4 bytes under Unix systems, corresponding to the tradition of using
UTF-32, but only 2 bytes under Windows which is required by compatibility with
the OS which uses UTF-16.

Typically when UTF8 is used, code units are stored into @c char types, since
@c char are 8bit wide on almost all systems; when using UTF16 typically code
units are stored into @c wchar_t types since @c wchar_t is at least 16bits on
all systems. This is also the approach used by wxString.
See @ref overview_string for more info.

See also http://unicode.org/glossary/ for the official definitions of the
terms reported above.


@section overview_unicode_supportin Unicode Support in wxWidgets

@subsection overview_unicode_support_default Unicode is Always Used by Default

Since wxWidgets 3.0 Unicode support is always enabled and while building the
library without it is still possible, it is not recommended any longer and will
cease to be supported in the near future. This means that internally only
Unicode strings are used and that, under Microsoft Windows, Unicode system API
is used.

However, unlike the Unicode build mode of the previous versions of wxWidgets, this
support is mostly transparent: you can still continue to work with the @b narrow
(i.e. current locale-encoded @c char*) strings even if @b wide
(i.e. UTF16-encoded @c wchar_t* or UTF8-encoded @c char*) strings are also
supported. Any wxWidgets function accepts arguments of either type as both
kinds of strings are implicitly converted to wxString, so both
@code
wxMessageBox("Hello, world!");
@endcode
and the somewhat less usual
@code
wxMessageBox(L"Salut \u00E0 toi!"); // U+00E0 is "Latin Small Letter a with Grave"
@endcode
work as expected.

Notice that the narrow strings used with wxWidgets are @e always assumed to be
in the current locale encoding, so writing
@code
wxMessageBox("Salut à toi!");
@endcode
wouldn't work if the encoding used on the user system is incompatible with
ISO-8859-1 (or even if the sources were compiled under different locale
in the case of gcc). In particular, the most common encoding used under
modern Unix systems is UTF-8 and as the string above is not a valid UTF-8 byte
sequence, nothing would be displayed at all in this case. Thus it is important
to <b>never use 8-bit (instead of 7-bit) characters directly in the program source</b>
but use wide strings or, alternatively, write:
@code
wxMessageBox(wxString::FromUTF8("Salut \xC3\xA0 toi!"));
    // in UTF8 the character U+00E0 is encoded as 0xC3A0
@endcode

In a similar way, wxString provides access to its contents as either @c wchar_t or
@c char character buffer. Of course, the latter only works if the string contains
data representable in the current locale encoding. This will always be the case
if the string had been initially constructed from a narrow string or if it
contains only 7-bit ASCII data but otherwise this conversion is not guaranteed
to succeed. And as with wxString::FromUTF8() example above, you can always use
wxString::ToUTF8() to retrieve the string contents in UTF-8 encoding -- this,
unlike converting to @c char* using the current locale, never fails.

For more info about how wxString works, please see the @ref overview_string.

To summarize, Unicode support in wxWidgets is mostly @b transparent for the
application and if you use wxString objects for storing all the character data
in your program there is really nothing special to do. However you should be
aware of the potential problems covered by the following section.


@subsection overview_unicode_support_utf Choosing Unicode Representation

wxWidgets uses the system @c wchar_t in wxString implementation by default
under all systems. Thus, under Microsoft Windows, UCS-2 (simplified version of
UTF-16 without support for surrogate characters) is used as @c wchar_t is 2
bytes on this platform. Under Unix systems, including macOS, UCS-4 (also
known as UTF-32) is used by default, however it is also possible to build
wxWidgets to use UTF-8 internally by passing @c \--enable-utf8 option to
configure.

The interface provided by wxString is the same independently of the format used
internally. However different formats have specific advantages and
disadvantages. Notably, under Unix, the underlying graphical toolkit (e.g.
GTK+) usually uses UTF-8 encoded strings and using the same representations for
the strings in wxWidgets allows to avoid conversion from UTF-32 to UTF-8 and
vice versa each time a string is shown in the UI or retrieved from it. The
overhead of such conversions is usually negligible for small strings but may be
important for some programs. If you believe that it would be advantageous to
use UTF-8 for the strings in your particular application, you may rebuild
wxWidgets to use UTF-8 as explained above (notice that this is currently not
supported under Microsoft Windows and arguably doesn't make much sense there as
Windows itself uses UTF-16 and not UTF-8) but be sure to be aware of the
performance implications (see @ref overview_unicode_performance) of using UTF-8
in wxString before doing this!

Generally speaking you should only use non-default UTF-8 build in specific
circumstances e.g. building for resource-constrained systems where the overhead
of conversions (and also reduced memory usage of UTF-8 compared to UTF-32 for
the European languages) can be important. If the environment in which your
program is running is under your control -- as is quite often the case in such
scenarios -- consider ensuring that the system always uses UTF-8 locale and
use @c \--enable-utf8only configure option to disable support for the other
locales and consider all strings to be in UTF-8. This further reduces the code
size and removes the need for conversions in more cases.


@subsection overview_unicode_settings Unicode Related Preprocessor Symbols

@c wxUSE_UNICODE is defined as 1 now to indicate Unicode support. It can be
explicitly set to 0 in @c setup.h under MSW or you can use @c \--disable-unicode
under Unix but doing this is strongly discouraged. By default, @c
wxUSE_UNICODE_WCHAR is also defined as 1, however in UTF-8 build (described in
the previous section), it is set to 0 and @c wxUSE_UNICODE_UTF8, which is
usually 0, is set to 1 instead. In the latter case, @c wxUSE_UTF8_LOCALE_ONLY
can also be set to 1 to indicate that all strings are considered to be in UTF-8.



@section overview_unicode_pitfalls Potential Unicode Pitfalls

The problems can be separated into three broad classes:

@subsection overview_unicode_compilation_errors Unicode-Related Compilation Errors

Because of the need to support implicit conversions to both @c char and
@c wchar_t, wxString implementation is rather involved and many of its operators
don't return the types which they could be naively expected to return.
For example, the @c operator[] doesn't return either a @c char or a @c wchar_t
and instead returns an object of a helper class wxUniChar or wxUniCharRef that is
implicitly convertible to either. Usually you don't need to worry about this as
the conversions do their work behind the scenes however in some cases it doesn't
work. Here are some examples, using a wxString object @c s and some integer @c
n:

 - Writing @code switch ( s[n] ) @endcode doesn't work because the argument of
   the switch statement must be an integer expression so you need to replace
   @c s[n] with @code s[n].GetValue() @endcode. You may also force the
   conversion to @c char or @c wchar_t by using an explicit cast but beware that
   converting the value to char uses the conversion to current locale and may
   return 0 if it fails. Finally notice that writing @code (wxChar)s[n] @endcode
   works both with wxWidgets 3.0 and previous library versions and so should be
   used for writing code which should be compatible with both 2.8 and 3.0.

 - Similarly, @code &s[n] @endcode doesn't yield a pointer to char so you may
   not pass it to functions expecting @c char* or @c wchar_t*. Consider using
   string iterators instead if possible or replace this expression with
   @code s.c_str() + n @endcode otherwise.

 - When using C++11 range-based for loop, the natural construct for iterating
   over wxString @code for ( auto& ch: s ) @endcode doesn't compile because of
   the unusual iterator type and @code for ( wxUniCharRef ch: s ) @endcode
   needs to be used instead.

Another class of problems is related to the fact that the value returned by
@c c_str() itself is also not just a pointer to a buffer but a value of helper
class wxCStrData which is implicitly convertible to both narrow and wide
strings. Again, this mostly will be unnoticeable but can result in some
problems:

 - You shouldn't pass @c c_str() result to vararg functions such as standard
   @c printf(). Some compilers (notably g++) warn about this but even if they
   don't, this @code printf("Hello, %s", s.c_str()) @endcode is not going to
   work. It can be corrected in one of the following ways:

  - Preferred: @code wxPrintf("Hello, %s", s) @endcode (notice the absence
    of @c c_str(), it is not needed at all with wxWidgets functions)
  - Compatible with wxWidgets 2.8: @code wxPrintf("Hello, %s", s.c_str()) @endcode
  - Using an explicit conversion to narrow, multibyte, string:
    @code printf("Hello, %s", (const char *)s.mb_str()) @endcode
  - Using a cast to force the issue (listed only for completeness):
    @code printf("Hello, %s", (const char *)s.c_str()) @endcode

 - The result of @c c_str() cannot be cast to @c char* but only to @c const @c
   @c char*. Of course, modifying the string via the pointer returned by this
   method has never been possible but unfortunately it was occasionally useful
   to use a @c const_cast here to pass the value to const-incorrect functions.
   This can be done either using new wxString::char_str() (and matching
   wchar_str()) method or by writing a double cast:
   @code (char *)(const char *)s.c_str() @endcode

 - One of the unfortunate consequences of the possibility to pass wxString to
   @c wxPrintf() without using @c c_str() is that it is now impossible to pass
   the elements of unnamed enumerations to @c wxPrintf() and other similar
   vararg functions, i.e.
   @code
        enum { Red, Green, Blue };
        wxPrintf("Red is %d", Red);
   @endcode
   doesn't compile. The easiest workaround is to give a name to the enum.

Other unexpected compilation errors may arise but they should happen even more
rarely than the above-mentioned ones and the solution should usually be quite
simple: just use the explicit methods of wxUniChar and wxCStrData classes
instead of relying on their implicit conversions if the compiler can't choose
among them.


@subsection overview_unicode_data_loss Data Loss due To Unicode Conversion Errors

wxString API provides implicit conversion of the internal Unicode string
contents to narrow, char strings. This can be very convenient and is absolutely
necessary for backwards compatibility with the existing code using wxWidgets
however it is a rather dangerous operation as it can easily give unexpected
results if the string contents isn't convertible to the current locale.

To be precise, the conversion will always succeed if the string was created
from a narrow string initially. It will also succeed if the current encoding is
UTF-8 as all Unicode strings are representable in this encoding. However
initializing the string using wxString::FromUTF8() method and then accessing it
as a char string via its wxString::c_str() method is a recipe for disaster as the
program may work perfectly well during testing on Unix systems using UTF-8 locale
but completely fail under Windows where UTF-8 locales are never used because
wxString::c_str() would return an empty string.

The simplest way to ensure that this doesn't happen is to avoid conversions to
@c char* completely by using wxString throughout your program. However if the
program never manipulates 8 bit strings internally, using @c char* pointers is
safe as well. So the existing code needs to be reviewed when upgrading to
wxWidgets 3.0 and the new code should be used with this in mind and ideally
avoiding implicit conversions to @c char*.


@subsection overview_unicode_performance Performance Implications of Using UTF-8

As mentioned above, under Unix systems wxString class can use variable-width
UTF-8 encoding for internal representation. In this case it can't guarantee
constant-time access to N-th element of the string any longer as to find the
position of this character in the string we have to examine all the preceding
ones. Usually this doesn't matter much because most algorithms used on the
strings examine them sequentially anyhow and because wxString implements a
cache for iterating over the string by index but it can have serious
consequences for algorithms using random access to string elements as they
typically acquire O(N^2) time complexity instead of O(N) where N is the length
of the string.

Even despite caching the index, indexed access should be replaced with
sequential access using string iterators. For example a typical loop:
@code
wxString s("hello");
for ( size_t i = 0; i < s.length(); i++ )
{
    wchar_t ch = s[i];

    // do something with it
}
@endcode
should be rewritten as
@code
wxString s("hello");
for ( wxString::const_iterator i = s.begin(); i != s.end(); ++i )
{
    wchar_t ch = *i

    // do something with it
}
@endcode

Another, similar, alternative is to use pointer arithmetic:
@code
wxString s("hello");
for ( const wchar_t *p = s.wc_str(); *p; p++ )
{
    wchar_t ch = *i

    // do something with it
}
@endcode
however this doesn't work correctly for strings with embedded @c NUL characters
and the use of iterators is generally preferred as they provide some run-time
checks (at least in debug build) unlike the raw pointers. But if you do use
them, it is better to use @c wchar_t pointers rather than @c char ones to avoid the
data loss problems due to conversion as discussed in the previous section.


@section overview_unicode_supportout Unicode and the Outside World

Even though wxWidgets always uses Unicode internally, not all the other
libraries and programs do and even those that do use Unicode may use a
different encoding of it. So you need to be able to convert the data to various
representations and the wxString methods wxString::ToAscii(), wxString::ToUTF8()
(or its synonym wxString::utf8_str()), wxString::mb_str(), wxString::c_str() and
wxString::wc_str() can be used for this.

The first of them should be only used for the string containing 7-bit ASCII characters
only, anything else will be replaced by some substitution character.
wxString::mb_str() converts the string to the encoding used by the current locale
and so can return an empty string if the string contains characters not representable in
it as explained in @ref overview_unicode_data_loss. The same applies to wxString::c_str()
if its result is used as a narrow string. Finally, wxString::ToUTF8() and wxString::wc_str()
functions never fail and always return a pointer to char string containing the
UTF-8 representation of the string or @c wchar_t string.

wxString also provides two convenience functions: wxString::From8BitData() and
wxString::To8BitData(). They can be used to create a wxString from arbitrary binary
data without supposing that it is in current locale encoding, and then get it back,
again, without any conversion or, rather, undoing the conversion used by
wxString::From8BitData(). Because of this you should only use wxString::From8BitData()
for the strings created using wxString::To8BitData(). Also notice that in spite
of the availability of these functions, wxString is not the ideal class for storing
arbitrary binary data as they can take up to 4 times more space than needed
(when using @c wchar_t internal representation on the systems where size of
wide characters is 4 bytes) and you should consider using wxMemoryBuffer
instead.

Final word of caution: most of these functions may return either directly the
pointer to internal string buffer or a temporary wxCharBuffer or wxWCharBuffer
object. Such objects are implicitly convertible to @c char and @c wchar_t pointers,
respectively, and so the result of, for example, wxString::ToUTF8() can always be
passed directly to a function taking <tt>const char*</tt>. However code such as
@code
const char *p = s.ToUTF8();
...
puts(p); // or call any other function taking const char *
@endcode
does @b not work because the temporary buffer returned by wxString::ToUTF8() is
destroyed and @c p is left pointing nowhere. To correct this you should use
@code
const wxScopedCharBuffer p(s.ToUTF8());
puts(p);
@endcode
which does work.

Similarly, wxWX2WCbuf can be used for the return type of wxString::wc_str().
But, once again, none of these cryptic types is really needed if you just pass
the return value of any of the functions mentioned in this section to another
function directly.

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